Gero Hochtemperaturoefen GmbH, (part of the Nabertherm Group) has added a new multifunctional hot-wall furnace to its range. The furnace has a maximum operating temperature of 1200°C and is ideally suited to a wide range of heat treatment processes.

The concept includes a hot cylindrical retort manufactured from stainless steel, outer heating elements and additional heating for the front-opening door and a heated gas outlet. This ensures that retort is free from coldspots, eliminating the condensation of gaseous compounds.

Hardox 450 is a new extra high-strength wear plate being used to develop a new concept of body construction for trucks and dumpers. Its special qualities make it possible to reduce the weight, give greater durability and increased operational safety. The steel is produced by SSAB Oxelösund and is part of the company’s new materials concept for vehicle manufacturers, Hardox in my body. The result is safer vehicles with stronger bodies.

Greater strength, improved stability, longer life and reduced weight: these are just some of the features stressed by SSAB Oxelösund as it launches its new materials concept for vehicle manufacturers and fleet owners - Hardox in my body. The concept is based on the new wear plate, Hardox 450, specially designed for vehicle load platforms and loading surfaces exposed to considerable wear. The steel can be produced over three metres in width and as thin as 4mm. This new wear plate allows entirely new structures of load body to be developed.

The material has been decisive in providing high durability and low weight, says Gianni Scantanburlo at Zorzi S.p.A of Italy. We have been able to leave out several beams, reinforcements and stiffeners normally required in this type of construction. The plate is really resistant and strong against impact forces and wear, while at the same time the body as a whole is flexible and pliable when subject to impact forces.

The high strength and toughness of the steel gives bodies real resistance to impact. Body construction provides an effective cushioning effect, absorbing much of the energy. The hardness of the material gives protection against continuous impact and wearing forces, even from boulder-sized rocks. Practical tests by SSAB Oxelösund have shown the steel to withstand impact from blocks weighing several tons when dropped from three metres onto a body of thin steel plate - without a mark or indentation!

Body construction with fewer stiffeners is really interesting, says Claes Löwgren at SSAB Oxelösund. Maximum use is made of the steel’s high strength via its in-built resilience. Together with the qualities possessed by the steel in the form of longer life-span, increased load capacity and increased safety, body constructors also have real arguments in favour of greater profitability for fleet owners. Several of our customers have made calculations on their constructions and are now changing from Hardox 400, one of the most wear-resistant steels on the market, to Hardox 450 - an even stronger steel.

The Hardox in my body concept is based on Hardox 450 steel and is being launched globally this spring. The steel is being rolled to the required width and thickness in the company’s new rolling mill, which is now working at full capacity.

Chinese Steel manufacturer Wuhan Steel has developed a fire resistant steel that they claim can withstand temperatures of 1080°C for up to 2.5 hours without yielding. It is also claimed to have a weather resistance 2 to 8 times greater then ordinary steel.

Using unique in-house developed technology, the new grade of steel has superior Z-direction performance and good resistance to high linear energy welding.

With the Chinese Engineering Academy declaring the steel was of an international standard after having tested it, Wuhan has already supplied 250 tons to Shanghai-based Disabled Athletes, with more interest expressed by the China World Trade Centre based in Beijing, who are looking to construct two skyscrapers.

Materials Handling Products (MHP) has recently introduced Abratuff Elasto Shock. This lining is said to offer extreme abrasion and impact resistance by combining the toughness of ceramic with the excellent shock absorbing properties of polyurethane.

The lining material uses specially shaped ceramic blocks that are able to move in any direction in a specially designed polyurethane matrix. This unique arrangement means that each ceramic block acts as if it is mounted on a shock absorber. The result is not only extreme impact and abrasion resistance, but also an increased wear area.

The company says that Abratuff Elasto Shock is suitable for a wide range of applications and is likely to prove a particularly efficient solution when used in steelworks, cement works and hard rock quarrying. MHP is the sole UK distributor for the product, which can be supplied with embedded steel mesh for simple mechanical fixing to chutes and hoppers.

Hardox 450 is a new extra high-strength wear plate being used to develop a new concept of body construction for trucks and dumpers. Its special qualities make it possible to reduce the weight, give greater durability and increased operational safety. The steel is produced by SSAB Oxelösund and is part of the company’s new materials concept for vehicle manufacturers, Hardox in my body. The result is safer vehicles with stronger bodies.

Greater strength, improved stability, longer life and reduced weight: these are just some of the features stressed by SSAB Oxelösund as it launches its new materials concept for vehicle manufacturers and fleet owners - Hardox in my body. The concept is based on the new wear plate, Hardox 450, specially designed for vehicle load platforms and loading surfaces exposed to considerable wear. The steel can be produced over three metres in width and as thin as 4mm. This new wear plate allows entirely new structures of load body to be developed.

The material has been decisive in providing high durability and low weight, says Gianni Scantanburlo at Zorzi S.p.A of Italy. We have been able to leave out several beams, reinforcements and stiffeners normally required in this type of construction. The plate is really resistant and strong against impact forces and wear, while at the same time the body as a whole is flexible and pliable when subject to impact forces.

The high strength and toughness of the steel gives bodies real resistance to impact. Body construction provides an effective cushioning effect, absorbing much of the energy. The hardness of the material gives protection against continuous impact and wearing forces, even from boulder-sized rocks. Practical tests by SSAB Oxelösund have shown the steel to withstand impact from blocks weighing several tons when dropped from three metres onto a body of thin steel plate - without a mark or indentation!

Body construction with fewer stiffeners is really interesting, says Claes Löwgren at SSAB Oxelösund. Maximum use is made of the steel’s high strength via its in-built resilience. Together with the qualities possessed by the steel in the form of longer life-span, increased load capacity and increased safety, body constructors also have real arguments in favour of greater profitability for fleet owners. Several of our customers have made calculations on their constructions and are now changing from Hardox 400, one of the most wear-resistant steels on the market, to Hardox 450 - an even stronger steel.

The Hardox in my body concept is based on Hardox 450 steel and is being launched globally this spring. The steel is being rolled to the required width and thickness in the company’s new rolling mill, which is now working at full capacity.

Chinese Steel manufacturer Wuhan Steel has developed a fire resistant steel that they claim can withstand temperatures of 1080°C for up to 2.5 hours without yielding. It is also claimed to have a weather resistance 2 to 8 times greater then ordinary steel.

Using unique in-house developed technology, the new grade of steel has superior Z-direction performance and good resistance to high linear energy welding.

With the Chinese Engineering Academy declaring the steel was of an international standard after having tested it, Wuhan has already supplied 250 tons to Shanghai-based Disabled Athletes, with more interest expressed by the China World Trade Centre based in Beijing, who are looking to construct two skyscrapers.

Materials Handling Products (MHP) has recently introduced Abratuff Elasto Shock. This lining is said to offer extreme abrasion and impact resistance by combining the toughness of ceramic with the excellent shock absorbing properties of polyurethane.

The lining material uses specially shaped ceramic blocks that are able to move in any direction in a specially designed polyurethane matrix. This unique arrangement means that each ceramic block acts as if it is mounted on a shock absorber. The result is not only extreme impact and abrasion resistance, but also an increased wear area.

The company says that Abratuff Elasto Shock is suitable for a wide range of applications and is likely to prove a particularly efficient solution when used in steelworks, cement works and hard rock quarrying. MHP is the sole UK distributor for the product, which can be supplied with embedded steel mesh for simple mechanical fixing to chutes and hoppers.

Crown Cork and Seal have developed a new range of convenient, single serve steel pet food containers.

The new containers which come in 100g and 300g varieties for cat and dog foods. The user friendly design eliminates the need for can openers by using a heat sealed polypropylene peel off lid, allowing quick and easy use and disposal.

The design has no sharp edges and permit the animal to eat directly from the container. This also means that there is no need to transfer the food to another feeding bowl.

The containers also feature a self adhesive non-stick pad for the base that keeps the container in place during feeding and helps to guard against spillages.

The containers also feature a porcelain-look internal coating. The heat seal process ensures maximum shelf life, while the containers are completely recyclable.

The Dow Chemical Company is offering traverse wound rolls of Zetabon coated steel armour to cable manufacturers. The armour protects fibre optic cables from rodent attacks, lightning strikes, corrosive chemicals, and mechanical and water damage.

Rolls of coated steel tape are 2 to 3 kilometres long on aver­age and during manufacturing these shorter lengths are welded together manually, typically once every half­hour. Using the traverse wound Zetabon tape reduces the time spent welding tape, and in many cases an operator only has to weld once during a three to six hour period.

Introduction

The effects of corrosion are well known and range from the obvious, the rust we see on motor vehicles and its effect on steel constructions such as the Sydney Harbour Bridge, to the lesser known economic costs to the community such as the short lifespan of farm fencing experienced in some parts of Australia. In the battle against corrosion, which costs Australia about 2% of GDP annually, scientists from CSIRO in collaboration with the Industrial Galvanisers Corporation (IGC) have developed a new online tool that pinpoints corrosion hot spots and offers industry a more accurate prediction of the effects of corrosion on steel and galvanised products.
Corrosion Mapping System

The corrosion mapping system (CMS) is based on the corrosion map of Australia developed by CSIRO, which estimates the corrosion rate in every locality of the country, including all 14,700 towns and suburbs, together with case history data of performance information about coatings collated by IGC during the past 25 years. “CMS incorporates a large amount of this data with the corrosion maps to provide an exciting new tool for predicting the corrosion rates of steel, galvanised and zinc coated products used in Australia,” says John Robinson, Group Development Manager for IGC.
Geographic Information Systems

Using geographic information systems (GIS), a corrosion model based on both statistical and process simulation was developed at CSIRO Built Environment in collaboration with its Infrastructure Systems Engineering and Sustainable Materials Engineering teams. “The map incorporates a corrosion model based on climatic conditions such as moisture, prevailing winds, salinity and pollution developed during many years of research by CSIRO,” says Stephen Pahos, Business Development Manager for CSIRO Infrastructure Systems Engineering (CISE). The model makes the following simple assumptions:

· Corrosion is influenced by two basic factors, salinity and moisture (time of wetness or TOW)

· If industrial pollution is neglected, then distance from the coast, topography, prevailing winds and the type of coast (surf or bay) will influence salinity levels

· Moisture is basically influenced by climatic parameters such as relative humidity and temperature.

The TOW, or the time a metal surface is assumed to be wet, is calculated from relative humidity and temperature records in 136 Bureau of Meteorology sites using a method suggested by the International Standards Organisation. An Australian-wide surface model of TOW is constructed from the 136 values using a geo-statistical technique called 'Kriging.' Figure 1 illustrates the resulting surface model for TOW.
Estimating Corrosion Rate

The corrosion rate in each of more than 14,700 localities, including towns and suburbs in Australia, is then estimated by:

· Representing each locality as a point defined by a pair of co-ordinates (longitude and latitude)

· TOW at each locality is estimated from the surface model shown in figure 1

· The amount of salt transported to each locality from the coast is simulated, figure 2

· A surface model of corrosion rate is derived from the corrosion estimates in the 14,700+ localities, figure 3.

Using CSIRO's existing Building Information Exchange (BIEX) internet portal, and the integrated corrosion information system, corrosion maps and models can be accessed online easily and in a cost effective manner. Using the internet, users can ‘click’ on to a region in Australia from a master map and have the degradation profile for various materials reported back in microns of material lost per year. It is also possible to add value to these models and maps by coupling them with service life estimation and material selection applications.
Materials Design for Location

This information is important to ensure that the correct materials are being used for each application. For example, it could be possible to order a steel section coated with ‘x microns’ of coating to get a given life expectancy in a particular region of the nation. This type of approach to material selection will see materials being designed for use, saving on raw materials consumption, pollution and costs associated with premature degradation of assets.
Other Uses for the Corrosion Mapping System

The CMS is currently being used by IGC to manage its coating guarantee programmes for its galvanised coatings and galvanised steel products. IGC offers comprehensive durability guarantees for specific projects in which its coating guarantees range from 15 to 50 years, depending on the project environment and client requirements.

“The expanding demand for performance guarantees on our products means CSIRO’s CMS is very attractive,” says Robinson. “It will help IGC manage its own coating guarantee projects and provide design professionals with real time corrosion data.”

Robinson also believes there are environmental and community benefits arising from this development. “It will give the specifying community access to environmental sustainability materials and construction information, including the greenhouse contribution of various construction materials,” he says.
Materials Specifications

In conjunction with the corrosion mapping programme, IGC is involved, though its industry association, the Galvanisers Association of Australia, in the development of a durability branding programme for steel products, particularly those used in construction.

Many steel construction products and builders hardware are not adequately protected from corrosion and do not give acceptable life in service. “This (the durability branding) will allow end users and specifiers to quickly identify the durability of a coated steel product through a certified ‘star rating’ system,” says Robinson.

As the demand for reliable, long term durability for steel construction products increases, and designers become more accountable for material durability performance, using the durability branding in conjunction with corrosion mapping will allow both consumers and designers to determine maintenance-free life in real time, in any environment with a high degree of confidence.
Application to Other Countries

The system can be applied to any country, assuming the data is available. CSIRO are currently working with IGC in South East Asia providing technical support for construction durability programmes in Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand. The corrosion mapping technology is expected to be expanded into these areas to assist in improving the durability of infrastructure and construction, where in the past, quality standards have led to short economic infrastructure life.
Availability of the CMS System

The CMS for IGC will be made available through its website, which is currently hosting a demonstration version of the CMS programme in the technical section of the site. In addition to the durability information, additional modules will provide information about inground corrosion of steel and environmental sustainability data for a range of construction materials.

The cost to industry will be relatively small. CSIRO is planning to create a web service to deliver the accumulated knowledge of its databases. During the next few years it will broaden its service with more and more data being delivered as people want it through the internet. CSIRO intends to offer its service on a subscription basis in which consumers can access the information after paying an annual fee.
Concluding Remarks

While there are internet based databases that will provide some corrosion data, CSIRO believes its CMS is the first online corrosion mapping system in the world. “The cost of the battle against corrosion in Australia is significant. It is a battle that is wearing away the infrastructure of our economy,” says Pahos. “Applying this type of technology to help reduce the effects of corrosion will significantly boost Australia’s competitiveness in the world.”

The benefits to the Australian economy have been focused on environmental and cost issues and CSIRO believes there is no reason to assume that the same benefits could not be realised in UK and European environments.

Background

Mossander separated a previously unidentified rose coloured oxide from cerite in 1841. He believed that the oxide contained a new element which he names didymium, as it was the inseparable twin brother of lanthanum.

Although, von Welsbach successfully separated didymium into two elemental components, neodymia and praseodymia in 1885, it was not until 1925, when neodymium was separated into a raltively pure form.
Occurrence

Neodymium is found in misch metal for which it comprises about 18%. It is also found in minerals such as monazite and bastnasite, which are the most common sources for rare earth metals.
Refining

It can be refined by separating neodymium salts from other rare earths by ion-exchange or solvent extraction. Alternatively it can be obtained by the reduction of anhydrous halides such as NdF3 using calcium metal, while other separation methods are also available.
Key Properties

Characteristic properties of neodymium include:

· Bright silvery metallic lustre

· It is one of the more reactive rare earth metals

· It tarnishes in air, forming an oxide layer that spalls off, exposing more metal to oxidation. For this reason, neodymium should be stored under a light mineral oil or sealed in plastic

· It has two allotropes and transforms from double hexagonal to body centred cubic structure at 860°C

· Natural neodymium consists of seven different isotopes, while a further seven radioactive isotopes are recognised
Applications
Glasses and Ceramics

Perhaps the main use for neodymium is as a colourant for glasses. When added to glass it can produce colours ranging from pure violet to wine red through to warm grey. It is also added to glass to remove the green colour induced by the presence or iron. Neodymium containing glasses can be used for astronomical work to sharp bands for the calibration of spectral lines, filter for infrared radiation and as an alternative to ruby in lasers for producing coherent light. Similarly didymium is used for making the glass that goes into welders goggles and neodymium is used as a colourant for enamels.
Magnets

Neodymium is also used in magnets. Such magnets are used in items such as computer disk drives.
Lighter Flints and Steel Making

Misch metal which contains metallic neodymium is used in lighter flints due to its pyrophoric nature and steel making.

Abstract

The effect of detonation synthesis nanodiamond powders on the structure and properties of electroless deposition Ni-B coatings on steel was studied by cross-sectional depth-sensing indentation, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy. As-deposited and annealed coatings with and without nanodiamond additives were investigated. Raman spectroscopy and XRD were unable to detect diamond particles in the coatings. The improved mechanical properties of coatings can be explained by improved deposition conditions and finer structure of the coatings upon addition of nanodiamond powders to the deposition bath.

Keywords

Diamond, Detonation, Coating, Nickel Boride, Hardness

Introduction Since the discovery of detonation synthesis for ultradispersed diamonds in the 1960s, the full potential of nanodiamonds remains to be explored. Detonation synthesis produces nanosized carbon particles with average diameters of ~5 nm, featuring a diamond core covered by graphitic layers and amorphous carbon. The surface of nanodiamond particles is rich in various functional groups and can be further functionalized. The superior properties of the diamond core combined with a large and chemically tunable surface allow them to be used in a wide variety of ways: initial research performed primarily in the former Soviet Union suggests a broad range of industrial applications. Such uses include chemical and electrochemical co-deposition with metals, ultradispersed diamond-polymer composites, polishing, lubrication, and biomedical applications. Commercially, electroplating and lubricant additives currently show the highest potential. Still there is no accepted opinion concerning the mechanism by which coating properties are improved upon the addition of nanodiamond particles to the deposition bath. Two alternatives are currently under consideration. One explains the improvement by inclusion of nanodiamond into the structure of coatings; the other suggests that nanodiamond improves the deposition conditions resulting in decreased columnar structure and porosity of the coating. Addition of nanodiamond to plated coatings is especially important for Ni-based coatings which are expected to replace the Cr-containing coatings currently in use, which require toxic chemicals for their production. Ni-B coatings have been shown to act particularly well. When coated with Ni-B, residual pores in stainless steel or other metals become filled, which results in improved mechanical properties of the interface. The coatings also decrease corrosion and increase wear resistance compared to the steel substrate. However, when compared to the Cr coatings, Ni-B coatings feature lower mechanical properties and wear resistance, both due to their columnar structure. Previous results have shown that nanodiamond additives can increase hardness of Ni-based coatings by a factor of 2-3. Dispersed nanodiamonds added into the deposition bath have been empirically shown to further increase the tribological properties of Ni-B coatings. But still, the role of nanodiamond in the observed phenomena remains unclear. The aim of this study is to investigate the structure and mechanical properties of Ni-B coatings plated with and without nanodiamond additives to the deposition bath to obtain better insight into the role of nanodiamond in the Ni-B deposition process. Experimental Ni-B coatings were deposited on four steel plates via electroless deposition with bath containing diamond nanoparticles supplied by NanoBlox Inc. (USA) and without diamond additives (Table 1). The structure of diamond nanoparticles which form a colloidal solution in the deposition bath, is described elsewhere. For further studies cross-sectional specimen were cut from plates, mounted in thermal-setting plastic and ground using silicon carbide paper and polished using 0.05μm alumina powder dispersed in a polishing cloth. Table 1. A description of the samples used in this study and their mechanical properties determined by nanoindentation. Sample Name Description Modulus (GPa) Hardness (GPa) AP As-plated without ND** 120 ± 29* 7 ± 2 AP-ND As-plated with ND 164 ± 7 9 ± 0.5 HT Sample AP heat treated at 385°C for 90 min 133 ± 14 11 ± 0.7 HT-ND Sample AP-ND heat treated at 385°C for 90 min 254 ± 6 10 ± 1.6 * - Standard deviation ** - ND stands for nanodiamond Mechanical properties were measured via depth-sensing indentation using a Nano Indenter XP (MTS). All indents were performed using a Berkovich tip to a depth of 2 μm. Hardness and moduli are calculated continuously throughout the loading by using the continuous stiffness measurement (CSM) option for all indents on all four Ni-B samples. Raman spectra were recorded to determine the presence of diamond in the samples. Each sample was studied at multiple points using a Renishaw 1000 Raman Spectrometer with an Ar+ laser with excitation wavelength of 514.5nm. Scanning electron microscopy using an FEI XL30 field emission SEM with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) was performed to examine the morphology of the coatings and to view residual indent impressions. A GiegerFlex D/Max-B diffractometer (Rigaku) with CuKα radiation was used to perform XRD studies to determine the phase composition of the samples. Results XRD spectra (Fig. 1) confirmed that as-plated samples AP and AP-ND (ND stands for nanodiamond) are X-ray amorphous. A single broad peak centered close to the position of major diffraction peaks of Ni2B and Ni3B, corresponds to amorphous Ni-B (Fig 1 a,b). XRD also shows that the heat treated samples HT and HT-ND are crystalline demonstrating the narrow peaks of nickel borides (Fig 1 c,d). Furthermore, the XRD patterns suggest that though both samples HT and HT-ND have been crystallized after annealing, HT-ND still contains a significant amount of amorphous material as shown by the halo and much finer grains of nickel borides denoted by broader peaks found in this sample. A higher heat treatment temperature or longer treatment time may be needed to fully crystallize the coatings produced in the presence of nanodiamond. A brief description of composition and FWHM values for the predominant Ni2B peak are summarized in Table 2. While XRD allows us to identify nickel boride phases, it does not provide information on presence of nanodiamond in the samples. An XRD spectrum of the nanodiamond powder shown in Fig. 1 e does not correspond with any of the peaks found in the other samples. This suggests that nanodiamond must be below the XRD detection limit if incorporated. Figure 1. XRD spectra for the samples studied (see Table 1 for description of the samples). Table 2. Composition of the samples as determined by XRD. For the crystalline samples, a calculated FWHM for the (2 1 1) Ni2B peak at 45.9˚ (d = 1.9757 Å) is shown. For the amorphous samples, a calculated FWHM for the amorphous peak is shown. Sample Composition FWHM AP amorphous Ni-B 7.5 HT crystalline Ni2B, and Ni3B 0.42 AP-ND amorphous Ni-B 8.4 HT-ND crystalline Ni2B, and Ni3B 1.27 The morphology and structure of the coatings was studied by SEM. An SEM image of the cross-section of sample AP-ND clearly shows dendrites which reveal the typical columnar growth mechanism of the Ni-B coatings (Fig 2 a). These columns are believed to be amorphous, as suggested by XRD. When comparing the column size of sample AP and sample AP-ND two differences are observed (Fig 2 b,c). The average width of columns is smaller for samples containing nanodiamonds than without. The average width of dendrites was found to be 0.8 ± 0.1 μm and 0.6 ± 0.05 μm for samples AP and AP-ND, respectively. Furthermore, the addition of nanodiamond leads to straighter columns with fewer branches and arms. Figure 2. (a) Columnar microstructure of as-plated, AP-ND, sample deposited from the diamond-containing bath. Insets show the microstructure for both samples: (b) the sample deposited without nanodiamond additive, AP, and (c) the sample deposited with nanodiamond, AP-ND. Backscattered SEM images of the samples HT and HT-ND show that the well developed columnar structure significantly decreases as the amorphous material is converted into crystalline grains after heat treatment (Fig. 3). In the case of sample HT, some regions remain columnar or amorphous while other areas, particularly those near the surface transform into crystalline equiaxial grains. This is not the case for sample HT-ND, suggesting that the addition of nanodiamond inhibited grain nucleation and growth. Figure 3. Comparison of the microstructure of the heat treated samples. (a) the sample deposited with no nanodiamond additive, HT, and (b) the sample deposited with nanodiamond, HT-ND. Indentation results for the samples studied are shown in Table 1. Load vs. displacement curves for all samples are shown in Fig. 4. Heat treatment of Ni-B coatings raises hardness. This can be explained by the transformation from the amorphous as-deposited coatings to harder crystalline Ni3B and Ni2B phases as confirmed by XRD (Fig. 1). The addition of nanodiamond also raises hardness by a factor similar to that achieved by annealing and causes a small increase in modulus. Heat treatment of the samples deposited with nanodiamond additives to the bath does not further increase the hardness but does increase the modulus by a factor of two. These measured properties are in agreement with the load vs. displacement curves (Fig. 4) which show an increase in the required load with heat treatment or the addition of nanodiamond. Therefore, such coatings are suitable for raising modulus and hardness or raising hardness without requiring heat treatment. Combination of heat treatment and addition of nanodiamond did not lead to a further increase in hardness as compared to sample HT or sample AP-ND. This can be explained by the fact that the microstructure of sample HT-ND still contained amorphous material (Fig. 1 d). If the sample could be processed in such a way to form small crystalline grains in the presence of nanodiamonds, additional hardening may be achievable.

Welding is the process of fusion of two metal surfaces together by heating them in a forge. Welds made with good forge are really strong and delicate, and it’s very hard to detect the welding mark with the naked eye. Welding is useful for a wide spectrum of industries due to the distinct properties that this process can alone offer.

There are different types of welding. Each welding process is distinct in application and properties. There are varieties like arc welding, gas welding, and plasma welding. To suit the application, any of these welding processes may be selected. It is found that carbon dioxide could not be used alone because of the high plasma back, so combinations of gases are employed in gas welding. Welding is useful in joining beams when constructing buildings, bridges, and other structures, and pipes in nuclear power plants and refineries.

Lincoln Electric Company is a leader in offering do-it-yourself welding projects. Ornamental entry gates, snow blowers, wheel chair ramps, ice fishing coops, and metal sculptures could be constructed using Lincoln welding equipment. Zena’s mobile welding equipment can fit into trucks, emergency vehicles, forklifts, construction equipment, watercraft, and lawn tractors/mowers.

Diamond Ground Products, Inc. is one of the major manufacturers in welding supplies with operations in the U.S., Canada, and the United Kingdom. They specialize in tungsten arc welding products and electrodes. Torch Mate CNC cutting systems give hypothermic plasma systems, which are more accurate than the regular plasma process. CNC retrofit kits, CNC rout, plasma cutter, and software are the specialty products of Applied Robotics Incorporation, which markets its products under the trademark Torch Mate CNC Cutting Systems.

The welding tools came from painstaking research. The training and expertise needed to operate the welding equipments is essential to get welding jobs. The machining processes as well as the welding processes are useful in different sectors like aeronautics, machine tooling for vehicles, surgical tooling, rails, steel and iron furniture, shipbuilding, domestic product manufacturing, and structural engineering. The precision-based CNC grinding and welding is ruling the world of welding. Technical institutions offer courses to train the operations and the methodology of the computerized process. There is good demand for them. Persons who aspire to take up a career in welding can best utilize the crash courses and workshops on CNC cutting and welding.

London is the shopping capital of the world. From the boutiques of Bond Street to the teeming Oxford Street fashion stores and vibrant street markets, there is something to suit even the most discerning of shoppers. Pick up the perfect gift from a luxury department store like Fortnum & Mason or wile away an afternoon in the world famous halls of Harrods.

Along with Paris and New York, London offers probably the best shopping experience of any city in the world. Indeed, visitors to the capital are often overwhelmed by the sheer range of goods available. The shoppers are spoilt for choice.

For major international and British Brands, London’s main shopping areas tend to centre on Oxford Street and Regent Street, while Knightsbridge is home to stores stocking even more up market goods. Anyone looking for specialist items should head to Covent Garden, whilst those with serious money to spend gravitate towards New Bond Street (home to some of Britain’s most exclusive shops). If one is after bargain electrical goods Tottenham Court Road is a must, while Hatton Garden is the place to go for watches and jewellery.

Shopping in London can be a transforming experience. It is a well known fact that Cary Grant was virtually “created” by a bespoke suit from Kilgour, French & Stanbury. Then there was that other fashion plate, the Duchess of Windsor who went for at-home style, she couldn’t be beat, thanks in part to the soigné accessories she bought at Colefax & Fowler, still purveying the “country-house look” from its shop on Brook Street.

Today, London’s stores continue to create icons and make styles as it is obvious from a visit to Harvey Nichols, shrine of the Absolutely Fabulous crowd. While one is seeking the cutting edge, one may notice that tradition shares the same shelf space. Selfridges, Harvey Nichols, and Harrods, for instance, stock suppliers for the royals, such as Cornelia James, glove maker to Her Majesty. If one has the urge to keep up with the Windsors, look for the by appointment royal coat of arms, which means that the emporium supplies Her Majesty the Queen, Prince Philip, or the Prince of Wales it can be checked through the small print and the insignia to find out which.

More-fashionable types prefer to check out the ever-expanding Browns of South Molton Street, although the surrounding small stores there and along quaint St. Christopher’s Place are also worth a visit. The most ardent fashion conscious will shoot to Notting Hill, London’s prime fashion location and scene of that movie.

London’s emporiums have gifts in every price range. Head to Bond Street or Knightsbridge if one looking for the sort of thing one would find in every Rockefeller’s Christmas stocking. For the bargain-hunters, try one of the street antiques fairs.

Apart from risk of bankrupting oneself, the only problem one will encounter is exhaustion, as London is a town of many far-flung shopping areas. The farthest is at Greenhithe, in the county of Kent the Europe’s largest gift to shopaholics, the 240-acre Bluewater. The mega glass-and-steel pleasure by the water was designed by American architect Eric Kuhne and contains every up market, high-street, brand-name store, department store, and chain store any shopper could desire.